In our previous blog on K6, we ran a script.js to test an api. As an output we received some metrics in the cli.
In this blog we are going to delve deep in to understanding metrics in K6.
1. HTTP Request Metrics
http_reqs
Description: Total number of HTTP requests initiated during the test.
Usage: Indicates the volume of traffic generated. A high number of requests can simulate real-world usage patterns.
http_req_duration
Description: Time taken for a request to receive a response (in milliseconds).
Components:
http_req_connecting: Time spent establishing a TCP connection.
http_req_tls_handshaking: Time for completing the TLS handshake.
http_req_waiting (TTFB): Time spent waiting for the first byte from the server.
http_req_sending: Time taken to send the HTTP request.
http_req_receiving: Time spent receiving the response data.
Usage: Identifies performance bottlenecks like slow server responses or network latency.
http_req_failed
Description: Proportion of failed HTTP requests (ratio between 0 and 1).
Usage: Highlights reliability issues. A high failure rate indicates problems with server stability or network errors.
2. VU (Virtual User) Metrics
vus
Description: Number of active Virtual Users at any given time.
Usage: Reflects concurrency level. Helps analyze how the system performs under varying loads.
vus_max
Description: Maximum number of Virtual Users during the test.
Usage: Defines the peak load. Useful for stress testing and capacity planning.
3. Iteration Metrics
iterations
Description: Total number of script iterations executed.
Usage: Measures the test’s progress and workload. Useful in endurance (soak) testing to observe long-term stability.
iteration_duration
Description: Time taken to complete one iteration of the script.
Usage: Helps identify performance degradation over time, especially under sustained load.
4. Data Transfer Metrics
data_sent
Description: Total amount of data sent over the network (in bytes).
Usage: Monitors network usage. High data volumes might indicate inefficient request payloads.
data_received
Description: Total data received from the server (in bytes).
Usage: Detects bandwidth usage and helps identify heavy response payloads.
5. Custom Metrics (Optional)
While K6 provides default metrics, you can define custom metrics like Counters, Gauges, Rates, and Trends for specific business logic or technical KPIs.
Example
import { Counter } from 'k6/metrics';
let myCounter = new Counter('my_custom_metric');
export default function () {
myCounter.add(1); // Increment the custom metric
}
Interpreting Metrics for Performance Optimization
Low http_req_duration + High http_reqs = Good scalability.
High http_req_failed = Investigate server errors or timeouts.
High data_sent / data_received = Optimize payloads.
Increasing iteration_duration over time = Possible memory leaks or resource exhaustion.
In the evolving Python ecosystem, pyproject.toml has emerged as a pivotal configuration file, streamlining project management and enhancing interoperability across tools.
In this blog i delve deep into the significance, structure, and usage of pyproject.toml.
What is pyproject.toml?
Introduced in PEP 518, pyproject.toml is a standardized file format designed to specify build system requirements and manage project configurations. Its primary goal is to provide a unified, tool-agnostic approach to project setup, reducing the clutter of multiple configuration files.
Why Use pyproject.toml?
Standardization: Offers a consistent way to define project metadata, dependencies, and build tools.
Interoperability: Supported by various tools like Poetry, Flit, Black, isort, and even pip.
Simplification: Consolidates multiple configuration files (like setup.cfg, requirements.txt) into one.
Future-Proofing: As Python evolves, pyproject.toml is becoming the de facto standard for project configurations, ensuring compatibility with future tools and practices.
Structure of pyproject.toml
The pyproject.toml file uses the TOML format, which stands for “Tom’s Obvious, Minimal Language.” TOML is designed to be easy to read and write while being simple enough for parsing by tools.
1. [build-system]
Defines the build system requirements. Essential for tools like pip to know how to build the project.
requires: Lists the build dependencies required to build the project. These packages are installed in an isolated environment before the build process starts.
build-backend: Specifies the backend responsible for building the project. Common backends include:
setuptools.build_meta (for traditional Python projects)
flit_core.buildapi (for projects managed with Flit)
poetry.core.masonry.api (for Poetry projects)
2. [tool]
This section is used by third-party tools to store their configuration. Each tool manages its own sub-table under [tool].
alias gitdir="cd ~/Git/" (This means gitdir switches to the ~/Git/ directory, but I wanted it to switch directly to a repository.) So, I wrote a Bash function.
Write Code to .bashrc File
The .bashrc file runs when a new terminal window is opened. So, we need to write the function inside this file.
Code
gitrepo() {
# Exact Match
repoList=$(ls $HOME/Git)
if [ -n "$(echo "$repoList" | grep -w $1)" ]; then
cd $HOME/Git/$1
else
# Relevant Match
getRepoName=$(echo "$repoList" | grep -i -m 1 $1)
if [ -n "$getRepoName" ]; then
cd "$HOME/Git/$getRepoName"
else
echo "Repository Not Founded"
cd $HOME/Git
fi
fi
}
Code Explanation
The $repoList variable stores the list of directories inside the Git folder.
Function Logic Has Two Parts:
Exact Match
Relevant Match
Exact Match
if [ -n "$(echo "$repoList" | grep -w $1)" ]; then
cd $HOME/Git/$1
If condition: The $repoList variable parses input for grep.
grep -w matches only whole words.
$1 is the function’s argument in bash.
-n checks if a variable is not empty. Example syntax: [ a != "" ] is equivalent to [ -n a ]
Relevant Match
getRepoName=$(echo "$repoList" | grep -i -m 1 $1)
if [ -n "$getRepoName" ]; then
cd "$HOME/Git/$getRepoName"
Relevant search: If no Exact Match is found, this logic is executed next.
getRepoName="$repoList" | grep -i -m 1 $1
-i ignores case sensitivity.
-m 1 returns only the first match.
Example of -m with grep: ls | grep i3 It returns i3WM and i3status, but -m 1 ensures only i3WM is selected.
No Match
If no match is found, it simply changes the directory to the Git folder.
This time, we’re shifting gears from theory to practice with mini projects that will help you build real-world solutions. Study materials will be shared beforehand, and you’ll work hands-on to solve practical problems building actual projects that showcase your skills.
What’s New?
Real-world mini projects Task-based shortlisting process Limited seats for focused learning Dedicated WhatsApp group for discussions & mentorship Live streaming of sessions for wider participation Study materials, quizzes, surprise gifts, and more!
How to Join?
Fill the below RSVP – Open for 20 days (till – March 2) only!
After RSVP closes, shortlisted participants will receive tasks via email.
Complete the tasks to get shortlisted.
Selected students will be added to an exclusive WhatsApp group for intensive training.
It’s a COST-FREE learning. We require your time, effort and support.
Don’t miss this chance to level up your Python skills Cost Free with hands-on projects and exciting rewards! RSVP now and be part of Python Learning 2.0!
In the field of Python development, maintaining clean, readable, and efficient code is needed.
The Ruff Python package is a faster linter and code formatter designed to boost code quality and developer productivity. Written in Rust, Ruff stands out for its blazing speed and comprehensive feature set.
This blog will delve into Ruff’s features, usage, and how it compares to other popular Python linters and formatters like flake8, pylint, and black.
What is Ruff?
Ruff is an extremely fast Python linter and code formatter that provides linting, code formatting, and static code analysis in a single package. It supports a wide range of rules out of the box, covering various Python standards and style guides.
Key Features of Ruff
Lightning-fast Performance: Written in Rust, Ruff is significantly faster than traditional Python linters.
All-in-One Tool: Combines linting, formatting, and static analysis.
Extensive Rule Support: Covers rules from flake8, isort, pyflakes, pylint, and more.
Customizable: Allows configuration of rules to fit specific project needs.
Seamless Integration: Works well with CI/CD pipelines and popular code editors.
Installing Ruff
# Using pip
pip install ruff
# Using Homebrew (macOS/Linux)
brew install ruff
# Using UV
uv add ruff
Basic Usage
1. Linting a python file
# Lint a single file
ruff check app.py
# Lint an entire directory
ruff check src/
2. Auto Fixing Issues
ruff check src/ --fix
3. Formatting Code
While Ruff primarily focuses on linting, it also handles some formatting tasks
ruff format src/
Configuration
Ruff can be configured using a pyproject.toml file
import sys
import os
print("Hello World !")
def add(a, b):
result = a + b
return a
x= 1
y =2
print(x+y)
def append_to_list(value, my_list=[]):
my_list.append(value)
return my_list
def append_to_list(value, my_list=[]):
my_list.append(value)
return my_list
Identifying Unused Imports
Auto-fixing Imports
Sorting Imports
Detecting Unused Variables
Enforcing Code Style (PEP 8 Violations)
Detecting Mutable Default Arguments
Fixing Line Length Issues
Integrating Ruff with Pre-commit
To ensure code quality before every commit, integrate Ruff with pre-commit
Step 1: Install Pre-Commit
pip install pre-commit
Step 2: Create a .pre-commit-config.yaml file
repos:
- repo: https://github.com/charliermarsh/ruff-pre-commit
rev: v0.1.0 # Use the latest version
hooks:
- id: ruff
Step 3: Install the Pre-commit Hook
pre-commit install
Step 4: Test the Hook
pre-commit run --all-files
This setup ensures that Ruff automatically checks your code for linting issues before every commit, maintaining consistent code quality.
When to Use Ruff
Large Codebases: Ideal for projects with thousands of files due to its speed.
CI/CD Pipelines: Reduces linting time, accelerating build processes.
Code Reviews: Ensures consistent coding standards across teams.
Open Source Projects: Simplifies code quality management.
Pre-commit Hooks: Ensures code quality before committing changes.
Ruff is a game-changer in the Python development ecosystem. Its unmatched speed, comprehensive rule set, and ease of use make it a powerful tool for developers aiming to maintain high code quality.
Whether you’re working on small scripts or large-scale applications, Ruff can streamline your linting and formatting processes, ensuring clean, efficient, and consistent code.
type casting int : <class 'int'>
type casting float : <class 'float'>
type casting string : <class 'str'>
type casting boolean : <class 'bool'>
type casting list : <class 'list'>
type casting set : <class 'set'>
type casting tuple : <class 'tuple'>
Delete Variable
Delete an existing variable using Python’s del keyword.
temp = 1
print("temp variable is : ",temp)
del temp
# print(temp) => throw NameError : temp not defined
Output
temp variable is : 1
Find Variable Memory Address
Use the id() function to find the memory address of a variable.
temp = "hi"
print("address of temp variable : ",id(temp))
Output
address of temp variable : 140710894284672
Constants
Python does not have a direct keyword for constants, but namedtuple can be used to create constants.
from collections import namedtuple
const = namedtuple("const",["PI"])
math = const(3.14)
print("namedtuple PI = ",math.PI)
print("namedtuple type =",type(math))
Output
namedtuple PI = 3.14
namedtuple type = <class '__main__.const'>
Global Keyword
Before understanding global keyword, understand function-scoped variables.
Function inside variable are stored in stack memory.
A function cannot modify an outside (global) variable directly, but it can access it.
To create a reference to a global variable inside a function, use the global keyword.
Git is a powerful version control system that every developer should master. Whether you’re a beginner or an experienced developer, knowing a few handy Git command-line tricks can save you time and improve your workflow. Here are 20 essential Git tips and tricks to boost your efficiency.
1. Undo the Last Commit (Without Losing Changes)
git reset --soft HEAD~1
If you made a commit but want to undo it while keeping your changes, this command resets the last commit but retains the modified files in your staging area.
This is useful when you realize you need to make more changes before committing.
If you also want to remove the changes from the staging area but keep them in your working directory, use,
git reset HEAD~1
2. Discard Unstaged Changes
git checkout -- <file>
Use this to discard local changes in a file before staging. Be careful, as this cannot be undone! If you want to discard all unstaged changes in your working directory, use,
git reset --hard HEAD
3. Delete a Local Branch
git branch -d branch-name
Removes a local branch safely if it’s already merged. If it’s not merged and you still want to delete it, use -D
git branch -D branch-name
4. Delete a Remote Branch
git push origin --delete branch-name
Deletes a branch from the remote repository, useful for cleaning up old feature branches. If you mistakenly deleted the branch and want to restore it, you can use
git checkout -b branch-name origin/branch-name
if it still exists remotely.
5. Rename a Local Branch
git branch -m old-name new-name
Useful when you want to rename a branch locally without affecting the remote repository. To update the remote reference after renaming, push the renamed branch and delete the old one,
Instead of cloning the entire repository, this fetches only the specified branch, saving time and space. If you want all branches but don’t want to check them out initially:
git clone --mirror repository-url
12. Change the Last Commit Message
git commit --amend -m "New message"
Use this to correct a typo in your last commit message before pushing. Be cautious—if you’ve already pushed, use
git push --force-with-lease
13. See the List of Tracked Files
git ls-files
Displays all files being tracked by Git, which is useful for auditing your repository. To see ignored files
Performance testing is a crucial part of ensuring the stability and scalability of web applications. k6 is a modern, open-source load testing tool that allows developers and testers to script and execute performance tests efficiently. In this blog, we’ll explore the basics of k6 and write a simple test script to get started.
What is k6?
k6 is a load testing tool designed for developers. It is written in Go but uses JavaScript for scripting tests. Key features include,
High performance with minimal resource consumption
JavaScript-based scripting
CLI-based execution with detailed reporting
Integration with monitoring tools like Grafana and Prometheus
A k6 test is written in JavaScript. Here’s a simple script to test an API endpoint,
import http from 'k6/http';
import { check, sleep } from 'k6';
export let options = {
vus: 10, // Number of virtual users
duration: '10s', // Test duration
};
export default function () {
let res = http.get('https://api.restful-api.dev/objects');
check(res, {
'is status 200': (r) => r.status === 200,
});
sleep(1); // Simulate user wait time
}
Running the Test
Save the script as script.js and execute the test using the following command,
k6 run script.js
Understanding the Output
After running the test, k6 will provide a summary including
1. HTTP requests: Total number of requests made during the test.
2. Response time metrics:
min: The shortest response time recorded.
max: The longest response time recorded.
avg: The average response time of all requests.
p(90), p(95), p(99): Percentile values indicating response time distribution.
3. Checks: Number of checks passed or failed, such as status code validation.
4. Virtual users (VUs):
vus_max: The maximum number of virtual users active at any time.
vus: The current number of active virtual users.
5. Request Rate (RPS – Requests Per Second): The number of requests handled per second.
6. Failures: Number of errors or failed requests due to timeouts or HTTP status codes other than expected.
Next Steps
Once you’ve successfully run your first k6 test, you can explore,
Load testing different APIs and endpoints
Running distributed tests
Exporting results to Grafana
Integrating k6 with CI/CD pipelines
k6 is a powerful tool that helps developers and QA engineers ensure their applications perform under load. Stay tuned for more in-depth tutorials on advanced k6 features!
Ensuring your applications perform well under high traffic is crucial. Join us for an interactive K6 Bootcamp, where we’ll explore performance testing, load testing strategies, and real-world use cases to help you build scalable and resilient systems.
What is K6 and Why Should You Learn It?
Modern applications must handle thousands (or millions!) of users without breaking. K6 is an open-source, developer-friendly performance testing tool that helps you
Simulate real-world traffic and identify performance bottlenecks. Write tests in JavaScript – no need for complex tools! Run efficient load tests on APIs, microservices, and web applications. Integrate with CI/CD pipelines to automate performance testing. Gain deep insights with real-time performance metrics.
By mastering K6, you’ll gain the skills to predict failures before they happen, optimize performance, and build systems that scale with confidence!
Bootcamp Details
Date: Feb 23 2024 – Sunday Time: 10:30 AM Mode: Online (Link Will be shared in Email after RSVP) Language:தமிழ்
Who Should Attend?
Developers – Ensure APIs and services perform well under load.
QA Engineers – Validate system reliability before production.
SREs / DevOps Engineers – Continuously test performance in CI/CD pipelines.
RSVP Now
Don’t miss this opportunity to master load testing with K6 and take your performance engineering skills to the next level!
Got questions? Drop them in the comments or reach out to me. See you at the bootcamp!
A REST API (Representational State Transfer) is a web service that allows different applications to communicate over the internet using standard HTTP methods like GET, POST, PUT, and DELETE. It follows REST principles, making it lightweight, scalable, and easy to use.
REST API Principles
Client-Server Architecture
A REST API follows a client-server architecture, where the client and server are separate. The client sends requests, and the server processes them and responds, allowing different clients like web and mobile apps to communicate with the same backend.
Statelessness
Before understanding statelessness, you need to understand statefulness.
Statefulness: The server stores and manages user session data, such as authentication details and recent activities.
Statelessness: The server does not store any information. Each request is independent, and the client must include all necessary data, like authentication details and query parameters, in every request.
This behavior makes the server scalable, reliable, and reduces server load.
Caching
Caching improves performance by storing responses that can be reused, reducing the need for repeated requests to the server. This minimizes response time and server load.
Uniform Interface
A uniform interface ensures consistency by using standard HTTP methods like GET, POST, PUT, and DELETE. This makes the API predictable and easy to use.
Layered System
A layered system divides tasks into separate layers, like security, caching, and user requests. The client only interacts with the top layer, making the system easier to manage and more flexible.
Start To Code
I use Node.js and some popular packages:
Express: A Node.js web framework used for building web applications and APIs.
Joi: A package used to validate user input, ensuring data integrity and security.
basic code
const express = require("express");
const app = express();
const joi = require("joi");
app.use(express.json());
//data
customers = [
{name : "user1", id : 1},
{name : "user2", id : 2},
{name : "user3", id : 3}
]
//listen
const port = process.env.PORT || 8080;
app.listen(port, ()=> console.log("listening on ",port));
//function
function validateUserName(customer){
schema = joi.object({
name : joi.string().min(3).required()
});
return schema.validate(customer)
}
GET
GET is used to retrieve data from the server. the response code is 200 if successful.
app.delete('/api/customer/:id', (req,res)=>{
const user = customers.find(user => user.id == req.params.id);
index = customers.indexOf(user);
if(!user){
console.log("test")
res.status(404).send("Data Not Found");
}
else{
customers.splice(index,1);
res.status(200).send("successfully deleted");
}
});
What I Learned
CRUD Operations with REST API
I learned the basics of REST API and CRUD operations, including the uniform methods GET, POST, PUT, PATCH, and DELETE.
Status Codes
REST APIs strictly follow status codes:
200 – OK
201 – Created successfully
400 – Bad request
204 – No content
404 – Page not found
Joi Package
For server-side validation, the Joi package is used. It helps verify user data easily.
Middleware
Using app.use(express.json()) as middleware ensures that for POST, PATCH, and PUT methods, JSON-formatted user data is parsed into an object accessible via req.body.
Last few days, i was exploring on Buildpacks. I am amused at this tool features on reducing the developer’s pain. In this blog i jot down my experience on Buildpacks.
Before going to try Buildpacks, we need to understand what is an OCI ?
What is an OCI ?
An OCI Image (Open Container Initiative Image) is a standard format for container images, defined by the Open Container Initiative (OCI) to ensure interoperability across different container runtimes (Docker, Podman, containerd, etc.).
It consists of,
Manifest – Metadata describing the image (layers, config, etc.).
Config JSON – Information about how the container should run (CMD, ENV, etc.).
Filesystem Layers – The actual file system of the container.
OCI Image Specification ensures that container images built once can run on any OCI-compliant runtime.
Does Docker Create OCI Images?
Yes, Docker creates OCI-compliant images. Since Docker v1.10+, Docker has been aligned with the OCI Image Specification, and all Docker images are OCI-compliant by default.
When you build an image with docker build, it follows the OCI Image format.
When you push/pull images to registries like Docker Hub, they follow the OCI Image Specification.
However, Docker also supports its legacy Docker Image format, which existed before OCI was introduced. Most modern registries and runtimes (Kubernetes, Podman, containerd) support OCI images natively.
What is a Buildpack ?
A buildpack is a framework for transforming application source code into a runnable image by handling dependencies, compilation, and configuration. Buildpacks are widely used in cloud environments like Heroku, Cloud Foundry, and Kubernetes (via Cloud Native Buildpacks).
Overview of Buildpack Process
The buildpack process consists of two primary phases
Detection Phase: Determines if the buildpack should be applied based on the app’s dependencies.
Build Phase: Executes the necessary steps to prepare the application for running in a container.
Buildpacks work with a lifecycle manager (e.g., Cloud Native Buildpacks’ lifecycle) that orchestrates the execution of multiple buildpacks in an ordered sequence.
Builder: The Image That Executes the Build
A builder is an image that contains all necessary components to run a buildpack.
Components of a Builder Image
Build Image – Used during the build phase (includes compilers, dependencies, etc.).
Run Image – A minimal environment for running the final built application.
Lifecycle – The core mechanism that executes buildpacks, orchestrates the process, and ensures reproducibility.
Stack: The Combination of Build and Run Images
Build Image + Run Image = Stack
Build Image: Base OS with tools required for building (e.g., Ubuntu, Alpine).
Run Image: Lightweight OS with only the runtime dependencies for execution.
It detects Python, installs dependencies, and builds the app into a container. Docker requires a Dockerfile, which developers must manually configure and maintain.
Automatic Security Updates
Buildpacks automatically patch base images for security vulnerabilities.
If there’s a CVE in the OS layer, Buildpacks update the base image without rebuilding the app.
pack rebase my-python-app
No need to rebuild! It replaces only the OS layers while keeping the app the same.
Standardized & Reproducible Builds
Ensures consistent images across environments (dev, CI/CD, production). Example: Running the same build locally and on Heroku/Cloud Run,
pack build my-app
Extensibility: Custom Buildpacks
Developers can create custom Buildpacks to add special dependencies.
Let’s take the example of an online food ordering system like Swiggy or Zomato. Suppose a user places an order through the mobile app. If the application follows a synchronous approach, it would first send the order request to the restaurant’s system and then wait for confirmation. If the restaurant is busy, the app will have to keep waiting until it receives a response.
If the restaurant’s system crashes or temporarily goes offline, the order will fail, and the user may have to restart the process.
This approach leads to a poor user experience, increases the chances of failures, and makes the system less scalable, as multiple users waiting simultaneously can cause a bottleneck.
In a traditional synchronous communication model, one service directly interacts with another and waits for a response before proceeding. While this approach is simple and works for small-scale applications, it introduces several challenges, especially in systems that require high availability and scalability.
The main problems with synchronous communication include slow performance, system failures, and scalability issues. If the receiving service is slow or temporarily unavailable, the sender has no choice but to wait, which can degrade the overall performance of the application.
Moreover, if the receiving service crashes, the entire process fails, leading to potential data loss or incomplete transactions.
In this book, we are going to solve how this can be solved with a message queue.
What is a Message Queue ?
A message queue is a system that allows different parts of an application (or different applications) to communicate with each other asynchronously by sending and receiving messages.
It acts like a buffer or an intermediary where messages are stored until the receiving service is ready to process them.
How It Works
A producer (sender) creates a message and sends it to the queue.
The message sits in the queue until a consumer (receiver) picks it up.
The consumer processes the message and removes it from the queue.
This process ensures that the sender does not have to wait for the receiver to be available, making the system faster, more reliable, and scalable.
Real-Life Example
Imagine a fast-food restaurant where customers place orders at the counter. Instead of waiting at the counter for their food, customers receive a token number and move aside. The kitchen prepares the order in the background, and when it’s ready, the token number is called for pickup.
In this analogy,
The counter is the producer (sending orders).
The queue is the token system (storing orders).
The kitchen is the consumer (processing orders).
The customer picks up the food when ready (message is consumed).
Similarly, in applications, a message queue helps decouple systems, allowing them to work at their own pace without blocking each other. RabbitMQ, Apache Kafka, and Redis are popular message queue systems used in modern software development.
So Problem Solved !!! Not Yet
It seems like problem is solved, but the message life cycle in the queue is need to handled.
Message Routing & Binding (Optional) – How a message is routed ?. If an exchange is used, the message is routed based on predefined rules.
Message Storage (Queue Retention) – How long a message stays in the queue. The message stays in the queue until a consumer picks it up.
If the consumer successfully processes the message, it sends an acknowledgment (ACK), and the message is removed. If the consumer fails, the message requeues or moves to a dead-letter queue (DLQ).
Messages that fail multiple times, are not acknowledged, or expire may be moved to a Dead-Letter Queue for further analysis.
Messages stored only in memory can be lost if RabbitMQ crashes.
Messages not consumed within their TTL expire.
If a consumer fails to acknowledge a message, it may be reprocessed twice.
Messages failing multiple times may be moved to a DLQ.
Too many messages in the queue due to slow consumers can cause system slowdowns.
Network failures can disrupt message delivery between producers, RabbitMQ, and consumers.
Messages with corrupt or bad data may cause repeated consumer failures.
To handle all the above problems, we need a tool. Stable, Battle tested, Reliable tool. RabbitMQ is one kind of that tool. In this book we will cover the basics of RabbitMQ.
Imagine you’re sending messages between friends, but instead of delivering them directly, you drop them in a mailbox, and your friend picks them up when they are ready. RabbitMQ acts like this mailbox, but for computer programs. It helps applications communicate asynchronously, meaning they don’t have to wait for each other to process data.
RabbitMQ is a message broker, which means it handles and routes messages between different parts of an application. It ensures that messages are delivered efficiently, even when some components are running at different speeds or go offline temporarily.
Why Use RabbitMQ?
Modern applications often consist of multiple services that need to exchange data. Sometimes, one service produces data faster than another can consume it. Instead of forcing the slower service to catch up or making the faster service wait, RabbitMQ allows the fast service to place messages in a queue. The slow service can then process them at its own pace.
Some key benefits of using RabbitMQ include,
Decoupling services: Components communicate via messages rather than direct calls, reducing dependencies.
Scalability: RabbitMQ allows multiple consumers to process messages in parallel.
Reliability: It supports message durability and acknowledgments, preventing message loss.
Flexibility: Works with many programming languages and integrates well with different systems.
Efficient Load Balancing: Multiple consumers can share the message load to prevent overload on a single component.
Key Features and Use Cases
RabbitMQ is widely used in different applications, including
Chat applications: Messages are queued and delivered asynchronously to users.
Payment processing: Orders are placed in a queue and processed sequentially.
Event-driven systems: Used for microservices communication and event notification.
IoT systems: Devices publish data to RabbitMQ, which is then processed by backend services.
Job queues: Background tasks such as sending emails or processing large files.
Building Blocks of Message Broker
Connection & Channels
In RabbitMQ, connections and channels are fundamental concepts for communication between applications and the broker,
Connections: A connection is a TCP link between a client (producer or consumer) and the RabbitMQ broker. Each connection consumes system resources and is relatively expensive to create and maintain.
Channels: A channel is a virtual communication path inside a connection. It allows multiple logical streams of data over a single TCP connection, reducing overhead. Channels are lightweight and preferred for performing operations like publishing and consuming messages.
Queues – Message Store
A queue is a message buffer that temporarily holds messages until a consumer retrieves and processes them.
1. Queues operate on a FIFO (First In, First Out) basis, meaning messages are processed in the order they arrive (unless priorities or other delivery strategies are set).
2. Queues persist messages if they are declared as durable and the messages are marked as persistent, ensuring reliability even if RabbitMQ restarts.
3. Multiple consumers can subscribe to a queue, and messages can be distributed among them in a round-robin manner.
Consumption by multiple consumers,
Can also be broadcasted,
4. If no consumers are available, messages remain in the queue until a consumer connects.
Analogy: Think of a queue as a to-do list where tasks (messages) are stored until someone (a worker/consumer) picks them up and processes them.
Exchanges – Message Distributor and Binding
An exchange is responsible for routing messages to one or more queues based on routing rules.
When a producer sends a message, it doesn’t go directly to a queue but first reaches an exchange, which decides where to forward it.
The blue color line is called as Binding. A binding is the link between the exchange and the queue, guiding messages to the right place.
RabbitMQ supports different types of exchanges
Direct Exchange (direct)
Routes messages to queues based on an exact match between the routing key and the queue’s binding key.
Example: Sending messages to a specific queue based on a severity level (info, error, warning).
Fanout Exchange (fanout)
Routes messages to all bound queues, ignoring routing keys.
Example: Broadcasting notifications to multiple services at once.
Topic Exchange (topic)
Routes messages based on pattern matching using * (matches one word) and # (matches multiple words).
Example: Routing logs where log.info goes to one queue, log.error goes to another, and log.* captures all.
Headers Exchange (headers)
Routes messages based on message headers instead of routing keys.
Example: Delivering messages based on metadata like device: mobile or region: US.
Analogy: An exchange is like a traffic controller that decides which road (queue) a vehicle (message) should take based on predefined rules.
Binding
A binding is a link between an exchange and a queue that defines how messages should be routed.
When a queue is bound to an exchange with a binding key, messages with a matching routing key are delivered to that queue.
A queue can have multiple bindings to different exchanges, allowing it to receive messages from multiple sources.
Example:
A queue named error_logs can be bound to a direct exchange with a binding key error.
Another queue, all_logs, can be bound to the same exchange with a binding key # (wildcard in a topic exchange) to receive all logs.
Analogy: A binding is like a GPS route guiding messages (vehicles) from the exchange (traffic controller) to the right queue (destination).
Producing, Consuming and Acknowledging
RabbitMQ follows the producer-exchange-queue-consumer model,
Producing messages (Publishing): A producer creates a message and sends it to RabbitMQ, which routes it to the correct queue.
Consuming messages (Subscribing): A consumer listens for messages from the queue and processes them.
Acknowledgment: The consumer sends an acknowledgment (ack) after successfully processing a message.
Durability: Ensures messages and queues survive RabbitMQ restarts.
Why do we need an Acknowledgement ?
Ensures message reliability – Prevents messages from being lost if a consumer crashes.
Prevents message loss – Messages are redelivered if no ACK is received.
Avoids unintentional message deletion – Messages stay in the queue until properly processed.
Supports at-least-once delivery – Ensures every message is processed at least once.
Enables load balancing – Distributes messages fairly among multiple consumers.
Allows manual control – Consumers can acknowledge only after successful processing.
Handles redelivery – Messages can be requeued and sent to another consumer if needed.
Problem #1 – Task Queue for Background Job Processing
Context
A company runs an image processing application where users upload images that need to be resized, watermarked, and optimized before they can be served. Processing these images synchronously would slow down the user experience, so the company decides to implement an asynchronous task queue using RabbitMQ.
Problem
Users upload large images that require multiple processing steps.
Processing each image synchronously blocks the application, leading to slow response times.
High traffic results in queue buildup, making it challenging to scale the system efficiently.
Proposed Solution
1. Producer Service
Publishes image processing tasks to a RabbitMQ exchange (task_exchange).
Sends the image filename as the message body to the queue (image_queue).
2. Worker Consumers
Listen for new image processing tasks from the queue.
Process each image (resize, watermark, optimize, etc.).
Acknowledge completion to ensure no duplicate processing.
3. Scalability
Multiple workers can run in parallel to process images faster.
producer.py
import pika
connection = pika.BlockingConnection(pika.ConnectionParameters('localhost'))
channel = connection.channel()
# Declare exchange and queue
channel.exchange_declare(exchange='task_exchange', exchange_type='direct')
channel.queue_declare(queue='image_queue')
# Bind queue to exchange
channel.queue_bind(exchange='task_exchange', queue='image_queue', routing_key='image_task')
# List of images to process
images = ["image1.jpg", "image2.jpg", "image3.jpg"]
for image in images:
channel.basic_publish(exchange='task_exchange', routing_key='image_task', body=image)
print(f" [x] Sent {image}")
connection.close()
consumer.py
import pika
import time
connection = pika.BlockingConnection(pika.ConnectionParameters('localhost'))
channel = connection.channel()
# Declare exchange and queue
channel.exchange_declare(exchange='task_exchange', exchange_type='direct')
channel.queue_declare(queue='image_queue')
# Bind queue to exchange
channel.queue_bind(exchange='task_exchange', queue='image_queue', routing_key='image_task')
def process_image(ch, method, properties, body):
print(f" [x] Processing {body.decode()}")
time.sleep(2) # Simulate processing time
print(f" [x] Finished {body.decode()}")
ch.basic_ack(delivery_tag=method.delivery_tag)
# Start consuming
channel.basic_consume(queue='image_queue', on_message_callback=process_image)
print(" [*] Waiting for image tasks. To exit press CTRL+C")
channel.start_consuming()
Problem #2 – Broadcasting NEWS to all subscribers
Problem
A news application wants to send breaking news alerts to all subscribers, regardless of their location or interest.
Use a fanout exchange (news_alerts_exchange) to broadcast messages to all connected queues, ensuring all users receive the alert.
The producer sends a news alert to the fanout exchange (news_alerts_exchange).
All queues (mobile_app_queue, email_alert_queue, web_notification_queue) bound to the exchange receive the message.
Each consumer listens to its queue and processes the alert.
This setup ensures all users receive the alert simultaneously across different platforms.
Intermediate Resources
Prefetch Count
Prefetch is a mechanism that defines how many messages can be delivered to a consumer at a time before the consumer sends an acknowledgment back to the broker. This ensures that the consumer does not get overwhelmed with too many unprocessed messages, which could lead to high memory usage and potential performance issues.
The Request-Reply Pattern is a fundamental communication style in distributed systems, where a requester sends a message to a responder and waits for a reply. It’s widely used in systems that require synchronous communication, enabling the requester to receive a response for further processing.
A dead letter is a message that cannot be delivered to its intended queue or is rejected by a consumer. Common scenarios where messages are dead lettered include,
Message Rejection: A consumer explicitly rejects a message without requeuing it.
Message TTL (Time-To-Live) Expiry: The message remains in the queue longer than its TTL.
Queue Length Limit: The queue has reached its maximum capacity, and new messages are dropped.
Routing Failures: Messages that cannot be routed to any queue from an exchange.
An alternate exchange in RabbitMQ is a fallback exchange configured for another exchange. If a message cannot be routed to any queue bound to the primary exchange, RabbitMQ will publish the message to the alternate exchange instead. This mechanism ensures that undeliverable messages are not lost but can be processed in a different way, such as logging, alerting, or storing them for later inspection.
CDC stands for Change Data Capture. It’s a technique that listens to a database and captures every change that happens in it. These changes can then be sent to other systems to,
Keep data in sync across multiple databases.
Power real-time analytics dashboards.
Trigger notifications for certain database events.
Backpressure occurs when a downstream system (consumer) cannot keep up with the rate of data being sent by an upstream system (producer). In distributed systems, this can arise in scenarios such as
A message queue filling up faster than it is drained.
A database struggling to handle the volume of write requests.
In the Choreography Pattern, services communicate directly with each other via asynchronous events, without a central controller. Each service is responsible for a specific part of the workflow and responds to events produced by other services. This pattern allows for a more autonomous and loosely coupled system.
The Outbox Pattern is a proven architectural solution to this problem, helping developers manage data consistency, especially when dealing with events, messaging systems, or external APIs.
The Queue-Based Loading Pattern leverages message queues to decouple and coordinate tasks between producers (such as applications or services generating data) and consumers (services or workers processing that data). By using queues as intermediaries, this pattern allows systems to manage workloads efficiently, ensuring seamless and scalable operation.
The Two-Phase Commit (2PC) protocol is a distributed algorithm used to ensure atomicity in transactions spanning multiple nodes or databases. Atomicity ensures that either all parts of a transaction are committed or none are, maintaining consistency in distributed systems.
The competing consumer pattern involves multiple consumers that independently compete to process messages or tasks from a shared queue. This pattern is particularly effective in scenarios where the rate of incoming tasks is variable or high, as it allows multiple consumers to process tasks concurrently.
The Retry Pattern is a design strategy used to manage transient failures by retrying failed operations. Instead of immediately failing an operation after an error, the pattern retries it with an optional delay or backoff strategy. This is particularly useful in distributed systems where failures are often temporary.
Developers try to use their RDBMS as a way to do background processing or service communication. While this can often appear to ‘get the job done’, there are a number of limitations and concerns with this approach.
There are two divisions to any asynchronous processing: the service(s) that create processing tasks and the service(s) that consume and process these tasks accordingly.
This is a Python-based single-file application designed for typing practice. It provides a simple interface to improve typing accuracy and speed. Over time, this minimal program has gradually increased my typing skill.
What I Learned from This Project
2D Array Validation I first simply used a 1D array to store user input, but I noticed some issues. After implementing a 2D array, I understood why the 2D array was more appropriate for handling user inputs.
Tkinter I wanted to visually see and update correct, wrong, and incomplete typing inputs, but I didn’t know how to implement it in the terminal. So, I used a simple Tkinter gui window
Run This Program
It depends on the following applications:
Python 3
python3-tk
Installation Command on Debian-Based Systems
sudo apt install python3 python3-tk
Clone repository and run program
git clone https://github.com/github-CS-krishna/TerminalTyping cd TerminalTyping python3 terminalType.py
GitHub Actions is a powerful tool for automating workflows directly in your repository.In this blog, we’ll explore how to efficiently set up GitHub Actions to handle Docker workflows with environments, secrets, and protection rules.
Why Use GitHub Actions for Docker?
My Code base is in Github and i want to tryout gh-actions to build and push images to docker hub seamlessly.
Setting Up GitHub Environments
GitHub Environments let you define settings specific to deployment stages. Here’s how to configure them:
1. Create an Environment
Go to your GitHub repository and navigate to Settings > Environments. Click New environment, name it (e.g., production), and save.
2. Add Secrets and Variables
Inside the environment settings, click Add secret to store sensitive information like DOCKER_USERNAME and DOCKER_TOKEN.
Use Variables for non-sensitive configuration, such as the Docker image name.
3. Optional: Set Protection Rules
Enforce rules like requiring manual approval before deployments. Restrict deployments to specific branches (e.g., main).
Sample Workflow for Building and Pushing Docker Images
Below is a GitHub Actions workflow for automating the build and push of a Docker image based on a minimal Flask app.
Workflow: .github/workflows/docker-build-push.yml
name: Build and Push Docker Image
on:
push:
branches:
- main # Trigger workflow on pushes to the `main` branch
jobs:
build-and-push:
runs-on: ubuntu-latest
environment: production # Specify the environment to use
steps:
# Checkout the repository
- name: Checkout code
uses: actions/checkout@v3
# Log in to Docker Hub using environment secrets
- name: Log in to Docker Hub
uses: docker/login-action@v2
with:
username: ${{ secrets.DOCKER_USERNAME }}
password: ${{ secrets.DOCKER_TOKEN }}
# Build the Docker image using an environment variable
- name: Build Docker image
env:
DOCKER_IMAGE_NAME: ${{ vars.DOCKER_IMAGE_NAME }}
run: |
docker build -t ${{ secrets.DOCKER_USERNAME }}/$DOCKER_IMAGE_NAME:${{ github.run_id }} .
# Push the Docker image to Docker Hub
- name: Push Docker image
env:
DOCKER_IMAGE_NAME: ${{ vars.DOCKER_IMAGE_NAME }}
run: |
docker push ${{ secrets.DOCKER_USERNAME }}/$DOCKER_IMAGE_NAME:${{ github.run_id }}
I created a website called Vinmeen that allows users to rent products for temporary needs at a low cost. The goal was to design a simple UI for users to easily rent things they need temporarily.
Technologies Used
Node.js & Express
Node Packages
Express
EJS
Nodemailer
Bcrypt
Multer
Sync-SQL
MySQL
MySQL
What I Learned from This Project
This project helped me understand how dynamic websites work and how template rendering is done. I used EJS for rendering templates, MySQL for database handling, and Bcrypt for securely storing user passwords through hashing. I also learned how to send email notifications with OTP and rent requests, among other things.
Files.io offers a free MySQL database with a 10MB size limit and a maximum of 5 concurrent connections. It’s ideal for students and self-study projects, but not recommended for startups or businesses.
I am regular follower of https://selfh.st/ , last week they showcased about BugSink. Bugsink is a tool to track errors in your applications that you can self-host. It’s easy to install and use, is compatible with the Sentry SDK, and is scalable and reliable.
When an application breaks, finding and fixing the root cause quickly is critical. Hosted error tracking tools often make you trade privacy for convenience, and they can be expensive. On the other hand, self-hosted solutions are an alternative, but they are often a pain to set up and maintain.
What Is Error Tracking?
When code is deployed in production, errors are inevitable. They can arise from a variety of reasons like bugs in the code, network failures, integration mismatches, or even unforeseen user behavior. To ensure smooth operation and user satisfaction, error tracking is essential.
Error tracking involves monitoring and recording errors in your application code, particularly in production environments. A good error tracker doesn’t just log errors; it contextualizes them, offering insights that make troubleshooting straightforward.
Here are the key benefits of error tracking
Early Detection: Spot issues before they snowball into critical outages.
Context-Rich Reporting: Understand the “what, when, and why” of an error.
Faster Debugging: Detailed stack traces make it easier to pinpoint root causes.
Effective error tracking tools allow developers to respond to errors proactively, minimizing user impact.
Why Bugsink?
Bugsink takes error tracking to a new level by prioritizing privacy, simplicity, and compatibility.
1. Built for Self-Hosting
Unlike many hosted error tracking tools that require sensitive data to be shared with third-party servers, Bugsink is self-hosted. This ensures you retain full control over your data, a critical aspect for privacy-conscious teams.
2. Easy to Set Up and Manage
Whether you’re deploying it on your local server or in the cloud, the experience is smooth.
3. Resource Efficiency
Bugsink is designed to be lightweight and efficient. It doesn’t demand hefty server resources, making it an ideal choice for startups, small teams, or resource-constrained environments.
4. Compatible with Sentry
If you’ve used Sentry before, you’ll feel right at home with Bugsink. It offers Sentry compatibility, allowing you to migrate effortlessly or use it alongside existing tools. This compatibility also means you can leverage existing SDKs and integrations.
5. Proactive Notifications
Bugsink ensures you’re in the loop as soon as something goes wrong. Email notifications alert you the moment an error occurs, enabling swift action. This proactive approach reduces the mean time to resolution (MTTR) and keeps users happy.
Yesterday, i came to know about SBOM, from my friend Prasanth Baskar. Let’s say you’re building a website.
You decide to use a popular open-source tool to handle user logins. Here’s the catch,
That library uses another library to store data.
That tool depends on another library to handle passwords.
Now, if one of those libraries has a bug or security issue, how do you even know it’s there? In this blog, i will jot down my understanding on SBOM with Trivy.
What is SBOM ?
A Software Bill of Materials (SBOM) is a list of everything that makes up a piece of software.
Think of it as,
A shopping list for all the tools, libraries, and pieces used to build the software.
A recipe card showing what’s inside and how it’s structured.
For software, this means,
Components: These are the “ingredients,” such as open-source libraries, frameworks, and tools.
Versions: Just like you might want to know if the cake uses almond flour or regular flour, knowing the version of a software component matters.
Licenses: Did the baker follow the rules for the ingredients they used? Software components also come with licenses that dictate how they can be used.
So How come its Important ?
1. Understanding What You’re Using
When you download or use software, especially something complex, you often don’t know what’s inside. An SBOM helps you understand what components are being used are they secure? Are they trustworthy?
2. Finding Problems Faster
If someone discovers that a specific ingredient is bad—like flour with bacteria in it—you’d want to know if that’s in your cake. Similarly, if a software library has a security issue, an SBOM helps you figure out if your software is affected and needs fixing.
For example,
When the Log4j vulnerability made headlines, companies that had SBOMs could quickly identify whether they used Log4j and take action.
3. Building Trust
Imagine buying food without a label or list of ingredients.
You’d feel doubtful, right ? Similarly, an SBOM builds trust by showing users exactly what’s in the software they’re using.
4. Avoiding Legal Trouble
Some software components come with specific rules or licenses about how they can be used. An SBOM ensures these rules are followed, avoiding potential legal headaches.
How to Create an SBOM?
For many developers, creating an SBOM manually would be impossible because modern software can have hundreds (or even thousands!) of components.
Thankfully, there are tools that automatically create SBOMs. Examples include,
Trivy: A lightweight tool to generate SBOMs and find vulnerabilities.
SPDX: Another format designed to make sharing SBOMs easier https://spdx.dev/
These tools can scan your software and automatically list out every component, its version, and its dependencies.
We will see example on generating a SBOM file for nginx using trivy.
How Trivy Works ?
On running trivy scan,
1. It downloads Trivy DB including vulnerability information.
2. Pull Missing layers in cache.
3. Analyze layers and stores information in cache.
4. Detect security issues and write to SBOM file.
Note: a CVE refers to a Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures identifier. A CVE is a unique code used to catalog and track publicly known security vulnerabilities and exposures in software or systems.
1. Ansh Arora, Gave a tour on FOSS United, How its formed, Motto, FOSS Hack, FOSS Clubs.
2. Karthikeyan A K, Gave a talk on his open source product injee (The no configuration instant database for frontend developers.). It’s a great tool. He gave a personal demo for me. It’s a great tool with lot of potentials. Would like to contribute !.
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